Understanding and Improving the Performance of Action PointingAction pointing involves choosing and executing an action at a specific place in the workspace (e.g., choosing a tool and clicking to start drawing, or selecting an object and copying with a shortcut). The elements of action pointing (choosing an action, specifying a position, and triggering the action) can be carried out in many ways - and our analysis of current techniques identified limitations on performance, particularly for repeated sequences of interactions. To empirically analyse interaction alternatives for action pointing, we developed and evaluated two techniques: ModeKeys removes modifier keys from keyboard shortcuts used to choose actions; AimKeys goes further by using the shortcut (not the mouse) to trigger the action. Three studies over three tasks showed that these reconfigurations were highly effective - in all studies, either AimKeys or ModeKeys were faster, easier, and preferred overall. Our studies show that small variations in the configuration of action pointing can have a large impact, offering opportunities to improve performance with direct-manipulation systems.2025CBCameron Beattie et al.University of SaskatchewanFull-Body Interaction & Embodied InputKnowledge Worker Tools & WorkflowsCHI
Effects of Device Environment and Information Layout on Spatial Memory and Performance in VR Selection TasksVirtual Reality systems are increasingly proposed as a platform for everyday interactive software. Many applications are dependent on actions such as navigation and selection, but it is not clear how well immersive environments support these basic activities. Previous studies have suggested advantages for spatial learning in VR, so we carried out a study that investigated two aspects of immersion on spatial memory and selection: the degree to which the user is immersed in the data, and whether the system uses immersive input and output. The study showed that more-immersive conditions had substantially worse selection performance, and did not improve spatial learning. However, most participants believed that the immersive conditions were better for learning object locations, and most people preferred the immersive layout and the HMD. Our study suggests that designers should be cautious about assuming that everyday software applications will benefit from being deployed in an immersive VR environment.2024KKKim Kargut et al.University of SaskatchewanEye Tracking & Gaze InteractionImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
Automation Confusion: A Grounded Theory of Non-Gamers' Confusion in Partially Automated Action GamesPartial automation makes digital games simpler by performing game actions for players. It may simplify gameplay for non-gamers who have difficulty controlling and understanding games. However, the automation may make players confused about what they control and what the automation controls. To describe and explain non-gamers' experiences of automation confusion, we analyzed gameplay, think-aloud, and interview data from ten non-gamer participants who played two partially automated games. Our results demonstrate how incorrect mental models, behaviours resulting from those models, and players' attitudes towards the games led to different levels and types of confusion.2023GCGabriele Cimolino et al.Queen's UniversityGame UX & Player BehaviorSerious & Functional GamesCHI
Showing Flow: Comparing Usability of Chord and Sankey DiagramsChord and Sankey diagrams are two common techniques for visualizing flows. Chord diagrams use a radial layout with a single circular axis, and Sankey diagrams use a left-to-right layout with two vertical axes. Previous work suggests both strengths and weaknesses of the radial approach, but little is known about the usability and interpretability of these two layout styles for showing flow. We carried out a study where participants answered questions using equivalent Chord and Sankey diagrams. We measured completion time, errors, perceived effort, and preference. Our results show that participants took substantially longer to answer questions with Chord diagrams and made more errors; participants also rated Chord as requiring more effort, and strongly preferred Sankey diagrams. Our study identifies and explains limitations of the popular Chord layout, provides new understanding about radial vs. linear layouts that can help guide visualization designers, and identifies possible design improvements for both visualization types.2023CGCarl Gutwin et al.University of SaskatchewanInteractive Data VisualizationVisualization Perception & CognitionCHI
`Specially For You' -- Examining the Barnum Effect's Influence on the Perceived Quality of System RecommendationsThe ‘Barnum effect’ is a psychological phenomenon under which people assign higher quality ratings to personality descriptions developed ‘specially for you’ than the same descriptions described as ‘generally true of people.’ This effect suggests that recommender interfaces could elevate the perceived quality of recommendations simply by indicating that they are explicitly personalised. We therefore conducted a crowd-sourced experiment (n=492) that examined the perceived quality of personalised versus non-personalised movie recommendations for good and bad movies – importantly, the actual recommendations were identical, and were merely presented as being either personalised or not. Contrary to the Barnum effect, results showed numerically lower mean quality scores for personalised recommendations, but with no significant difference. Our findings suggest that Barnum-like effects of personalisation have at most a small influence on perceived quality, and that designers should not rely on this effect to improve user experience (despite online design guidance suggesting the opposite).2023PSPang Suwanaposee et al.University of CanterburyRecommender System UXVisualization Perception & CognitionCHI
Probability Weighting in Interactive Decisions: Evidence for Overuse of Bad Assistance, Underuse of Good AssistanceThe effective use of assistive interfaces (i.e. those that offer suggestions or reform the user's input to match inferred intentions) depends on users making good decisions about whether and when to engage or ignore assistive features. However, prior work from economics and psychology shows systematic decision-making biases in which people overreact to low probability events and underreact to high probability events -- modelled using a probability weighting function. We examine the theoretical implications of this probability weighting for interaction, including its suggestion that users will overuse inaccurate interface assistance and underuse accurate assistance. We then conduct a new analysis of data from a previously published study, quantifying the degree of bias users exhibited, and demonstrating conformance with these predictions. We discuss implications for design, including strategies that could be used to mitigate the deleterious effects of the observed biases.2022ACAndy Cockburn et al.University of CanterburyExplainable AI (XAI)AI-Assisted Decision-Making & AutomationAI Ethics, Fairness & AccountabilityCHI
(Don't) stand by me: How trait psychopathy and NPC emotion influence player perceptions, verbal responses, and movement behaviours in a gaming taskSocial interactions are an essential part of many digital games, and provide benefits to players; however, problematic social interactions also lead to harm. To inform our understanding of the origins of harmful social behaviours in gaming contexts, we examine how trait psychopathy influences player perceptions and behaviours within a gaming task. After measuring participants’ (n=385) trait-level boldness, meanness, and disinhibition, we expose them to neutral and angry social interactions with a non-player character (NPC) in a gaming task and assess their perceptions, verbal responses, and movement behaviours. Our findings demonstrate that the traits significantly influence interpretation of NPC emotion, verbal responses to the NPC, and movement behaviours around the NPC. These insights can inform the design of social games and communities and can help designers and researchers better understand how social functioning translates into gaming contexts2022MDMartin Johannes Dechant et al.University of SaskatchewanGame UX & Player BehaviorRole-Playing & Narrative GamesCHI
More Errors vs. Longer Commands: The Effects of Repetition and Reduced Expressiveness on Input Interpretation Error, Learning, and User PreferenceMany interactive systems are susceptible to misinterpreting the user's input actions or gestures. Interpretation errors are common when systems gather a series of signals from the user and then attempt to interpret the user's intention based on those signals -- e.g., gesture identification from a touchscreen, camera, or body-worn electrodes -- and previous work has shown that interpretation error can cause significant problems for learning new input commands. Error-reduction strategies from telecommunications, such as repeating a command or increasing the length of the input while reducing its expressiveness, could improve these input mechanisms -- but little is known about whether longer command sequences will cause problems for users (e.g., increased effort or reduced learning). We tested performance, learning, and perceived effort in a crowd-sourced study where participants learned and used input mechanisms with different error-reduction techniques. We found that error reduction techniques are feasible, can outperform error-prone ordinary input, and do not negatively affect learning or perceived effort.2022KLKevin C. Lam et al.University of SaskatchewanHand Gesture RecognitionHuman Pose & Activity RecognitionCHI
"Chat Has No Chill": A Novel Physiological Interaction for Engaging Live Streaming AudiencesNow more than ever, people are using online platforms to communicate. Twitch, the foremost platform for live game streaming, offers many communication modalities. However, the platform lacks representation of social cues and signals of the audience experience, which are innately present in live events. To address this, we present a technology probe that captures the audience energy and response in a game streaming context. We designed a game and integrated a custom-communication modality—Commons Sense—in which the audience members' heart rates are sensed via webcam, averaged, and fed into a video game to affect sound, lighting, and difficulty. We conducted an `in-the-wild' evaluation with four Twitch streamers and their audience members (N=55) to understand how these groups interacted through Commons Sense. Audience members and streamers indicated high levels of enjoyment and engagement with Commons Sense, suggesting the potential of physiological interaction as a beneficial communication tool in live streaming.2022RRRaquel Breejon Robinson et al.University of SaskatchewanLive Streaming & Spectating ExperienceFitness Tracking & Physical Activity MonitoringCHI
Meeting with Media: Comparing Synchronous Media Sharing and Icebreaker Questions in Initial Interactions via Video ChatVideo chat continues to play an increasing role in the personal and professional lives of many people. When meeting someone for the first time via video chat, traditional icebreakers such as discussion questions may be used to ease conversation and facilitate disclosure; however, icebreaker questions have been shown to be less effective at facilitating relationships for some people than others. In this paper, we propose synchronously sharing online media as a more flexible, robust, and effective method of facilitating initial interactions in video chat. Our comparative study of icebreaker questions and media sharing reveals that shared media supports a different style of conversation than icebreakers, but results in equal levels of self-disclosure and trust along with higher levels of warranting and relatedness. Further, while the effectiveness of icebreakers in building trust is lower for individuals low in agreeableness, media sharing results in similar trust formation at all levels of agreeableness. Synchronous media sharing is a promising way of leveraging the digital context of video chat to better support early stages of relationships.2021MMMatthew K. Miller et al.Computer-Supported Conversation and CommunicationCSCW
Assessing Social Anxiety Through Digital Biomarkers Embedded in a Gaming TaskDigital biomarkers of mental health issues offer many advantages, including timely identification for early intervention, ongoing assessment during treatment, and reducing barriers to assessment stemming from geography, age, fear, or disparities in access to systems of care. Embedding digital biomarkers into games may further increase the reach of digital assessment. In this study, we explore game-based digital biomarkers for social anxiety, based on interaction with a non-player character (NPC). We show that social anxiety affects a player’s accuracy and their movement path in a gaming task involving an NPC. Further, we compared first versus third-person camera perspectives and the use of customized versus predefined avatars to explore the influence of common game interface factors on the expression of social anxiety through in-game movements. Our findings provide new insights about how game-based digital biomarkers can be effectively used for social anxiety, affording the benefits of early and ongoing digital assessment.2021MDMartin Johannes Dechant et al.University of SaskatchewanSerious & Functional GamesMental Health Apps & Online Support CommunitiesCHI
Serious Snacking: A Survival Analysis of how Snacking Mechanics Affect Attrition in a Mobile Serious GameMany serious games are most effective when played regularly; however, little is known about how individual game elements support player adherence over time. This work draws on evidence from existing frameworks and game design theories as well as from the design of casual games to investigate how individual game mechanics affect player attrition in a serious game. We implemented a math-learning game in which we could individually layer various game mechanics, and over the course of 3 weeks, 99 participants played one of six versions: Baseline, Rewards, Novelty, Completion, Waiting, or Blocking. We compared the game versions by analyzing the players' performance as well as behaviour. Using survival analysis, we identified that the addition of Completion and Blocking mechanics facilitated the strongest sustained engagement. These findings are congruent with existing theories of player experience and promote the development of guidelines on designing for sustained engagement in serious games.2021DADmitry Alexandrovsky et al.University of BremenSerious & Functional GamesGamification DesignCHI
The Image of the Interface: How People Use Landmarks to Develop Spatial Memory of Commands in Graphical InterfacesGraphical User Interfaces present commands at particular locations, arranged in menus, toolbars, and ribbons. One hallmark of expertise with a GUI is that experts know the locations of commonly-used commands, such that they can find them quickly and without searching. Although GUIs have been studied for many years, however, there is still little known about how this spatial location memory develops, or how designers can make interfaces more memorable. One of the main ways that people remember locations in the real world is landmarks – so we carried out a study to investigate how users remember commands and navigate in four common applications (Word, Facebook, Reader, and Photoshop). Our study revealed that people strongly rely on landmarks that are readily available in the interface (e.g., layout, corners, and edges) to orient themselves and remember commands. We provide new evidence that landmarks can aid spatial memory and expertise development with an interface, and guidelines for designers to improve the memorability of future GUIs.2021MUMd. Sami Uddin et al.University of SaskatchewanVisualization Perception & CognitionPrototyping & User TestingCHI
The Effects of System Interpretation Errors on Learning New Input MechanismsInput mechanisms can produce noisy signals that computers must interpret, and this interpretation can misconstrue the user’s intention. Researchers have studied how interpretation errors can affect users’ task performance, but little is known about how these errors affect learning, and whether they help or hinder the transition to expertise. Previous findings suggest that increasing the user’s attention can facilitate learning, so frequent interpretation errors may increase attention and learning; alternatively, however, interpretation errors may negatively interfere with skill development. To explore these potentially important effects, we conducted studies where participants learned commands with various rates of artificially injected interpretation errors. Our results showed that higher rates of interpretation error led to worse memory retention, higher completion times, higher occurrences of user error (beyond those injected by the system), and greater perceived effort. These findings indicate that when input mechanisms must interpret the user's input, interpretation errors cause problems for user learning.2021KLKevin C. Lam et al.University of SaskatchewanHand Gesture RecognitionEye Tracking & Gaze InteractionCHI
Meeting You, Seeing Me: The Role of Social Anxiety, Visual Feedback, and Interface Layout in a Get-to-Know-You Task via Video Chat.The growing number of video chat users includes socially anxious people, but it is not known how video chat interfaces affect their interpersonal interactions. In our first study, we use a get-to-know-you task to show that when video feedback of oneself is disabled, higher social anxiety is associated with more public self-awareness, use of 2nd person pronouns, and experienced anxiety. Higher social anxiety was linked to discussing more topics, but discussing more topics only elicited higher self-disclosure and trust when social anxiety was low. In our second study, we assess these same effects using a presentation layout video chat interface and observe no effects of social anxiety on public self-awareness, 2nd person pronoun use, or number of topics discussed; no effect of feedback on experienced anxiety; and no link between number of topics and self-disclosure. Video chat adopters and designers should consider how feedback and interface layout affect conversations.2021MMMatthew K. Miller et al.University of SaskatchewanMental Health Apps & Online Support CommunitiesSocial Platform Design & User BehaviorCHI
Interaction Pace and User PreferencesThe overall pace of interaction combines the user's pace and the system's pace, and a pace mismatch could impair user preferences (e.g., animations or timeouts that are too fast or slow for the user). Motivated by studies of speech rate convergence, we conducted an experiment to examine whether user preferences for system pace are correlated with user pace. Subjects first completed a series of trials to determine their user pace. They then completed a series of hierarchical drag-and-drop trials in which folders automatically expanded when the cursor hovered for longer than a controlled timeout. Results showed that preferences for timeout values correlated with user pace -- slow-paced users preferred long timeouts, and fast-paced users preferred short timeouts. Results indicate potential benefits in moving away from fixed or customisable settings for system pace. Instead, systems could improve preferences by automatically adapting their pace to converge towards that of the user.2021AGAlix Goguey et al.Université Grenoble AlpesVisualization Perception & CognitionCHI
Gathering Self-Report Data in Games through NPC Dialogues: Effects on Data Quality, Data Quantity, Player Experience, and Information IntimacySelf-report assessment is important for research and game development, e.g., to gather data during play. Games can use dialogues with non-player characters (NPCs) to gather self-report data; however, players might respond differently to dialogues than questionnaires. Without guidance on how in-game assessment affects player perceptions and experiences, designers and researchers are in danger of making decisions that harm data quantity and quality, and perceptions of privacy. We conducted a user study to understand self-report collection from NPC dialogues and traditional in-game overlay questionnaires. Data quality and player experience measures autonomy, curiosity, immersion, and mastery did not differ significantly, although NPC dialogues enhanced meaning. NPC dialogues supported an increase in data quantity through voluntary 5-point scales but not via open responses; however, they also increased the perceived intimacy of shared information despite comparable objective intimacy. NPC dialogues are useful to gather quantitative self-report data. They enable a meaningful play experience but could facilitate negative effects related to privacy.2021JFJulian Frommel et al.University of SaskatchewanGame UX & Player BehaviorPrototyping & User TestingCHI
Prepare for Trouble and Make It Double: The Power Motive Predicts Pokémon Choices Based on Apparent StrengthTwo social motives are distinguished by Motive Disposition Theory: affiliation and power. Motives orient, select and energize our behaviour, suggesting that the choices of power-motivated individuals should be guided by power cues, such as the appearance of strength in a game character or avatar. In study 1 we demonstrate that participants were more likely to pick strong-looking Pokémon for a fight and cute Pokémon as a companion. In addition, we show that even when considering these contexts, the power motive predicts preferences for a powerful appearance, whereas affiliation does not. In study 2 we replicate the study 1 findings and distinguish between two ways to enact the power motive (prosocial and dominant power). We demonstrate that the dominance, but not the prosociality, facet drives the preference for strong-looking Pokémon. Our findings suggest that the need to influence others—the power motive—drives the choice for battle companions who symbolize strength.2021SPSusanne Poeller et al.University of TrierGame UX & Player BehaviorRole-Playing & Narrative GamesCHI
Don't You Know That You're Toxic: Perceptions of Toxicity in Online GamingVideo game toxicity, endemic to online play, represents a pervasive and complex problem. Antisocial behaviours in online play directly harm player wellbeing, enjoyment, and retention—but research has also revealed that some players normalize toxicity as an inextricable and acceptable element of the competitive video game experience. In this work, we explore perceptions of toxicity and how they are predicted by player traits, demonstrating that participants reporting a higher tendency towards Conduct Reconstrual, Distorting Consequences, Dehumanization, and Toxic Online Disinhibition perceive online game interactions as less toxic. Through a thematic analysis on willingness to report, we also demonstrate that players abstain from reporting toxic content because they view it as acceptable, typical of games, as banter, or as not their concern. We propose that these traits and themes represent contributing factors to the cyclical normalization of toxicity. These findings further highlight the multifaceted nature of toxicity in online video games.2021NBNicole A Beres et al.University of SaskatchewanGame UX & Player BehaviorSocial Platform Design & User BehaviorCHI
ShARe: Enabling Co-Located Asymmetric Multi-User Interaction for Augmented Reality Head-Mounted DisplaysHead-Mounted Displays (HMDs) are the dominant form of enabling Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) for personal use. One of the biggest challenges of HMDs is the exclusion of people in the vicinity, such as friends or family. While recent research on asymmetric interaction for VR HMDs has contributed to solving this problem in the VR domain, AR HMDs come with similar but also different problems, such as conflicting information in visualization through the HMD and projection. In this work, we propose ShARe, a modified AR HMD combined with a projector that can display augmented content onto planar surfaces to include the outside users (non-HMD users). To combat the challenge of conflicting visualization between augmented and projected content, ShARe visually aligns the content presented through the AR HMD with the projected content using an internal calibration procedure and a servo motor. Using marker tracking, non-HMD users are able to interact with the projected content using touch and gestures. To further explore the arising design space, we implemented three types of applications (collaborative game, competitive game, and external visualization). ShARe is a proof-of-concept system that showcases how AR HMDs can facilitate interaction with outside users to combat exclusion and instead foster rich, enjoyable social interactions.2020PJPascal Jansen et al.Social & Collaborative VRMixed Reality WorkspacesUIST