"Create a Fear of Missing Out" – ChatGPT Implements Unsolicited Deceptive Designs in Generated Websites Without WarningWith the recent advancements in Large Language Models (LLMs), web developers increasingly apply their code-generation capabilities to website design. However, since these models are trained on existing designerly knowledge, they may inadvertently replicate bad or even illegal practices, especially deceptive designs (DD). This paper examines whether users can accidentally create DD for a fictitious webshop using GPT-4. We recruited 20 participants, asking them to use ChatGPT to generate functionalities (product overview or checkout) and then modify these using neutral prompts to meet a business goal (e.g., "increase the likelihood of us selling our product"). We found that all 20 generated websites contained at least one DD pattern (mean: 5, max: 9), with GPT-4 providing no warnings. When reflecting on the designs, only 4 participants expressed concerns, while most considered the outcomes satisfactory and not morally problematic, despite the potential ethical and legal implications for end-users and those adopting ChatGPT's recommendations.2025VKVeronika Krauß et al.TU DarmstadtExplainable AI (XAI)Privacy by Design & User ControlDark Patterns RecognitionCHI
InterFACE: Establishing a Facial Action Unit Input Vocabulary for Hands-Free Extended Reality Interactions, From VR Gaming to AR Web BrowsingExtended Reality (XR) interactions often rely on spatial hand or controller inputs - necessitating dexterous wrist, hand and finger movements including pressing virtual buttons, pinching to select, and performing hand gestures. However, there are scenarios where such dependencies may render XR devices and apps inaccessible to users - from situational/temporary impairments such as encumbrance, to physical motor impairments. In this paper, we contribute to a growing literature considering facial input as an alternative. In a user study (N=20) we systematically evaluate the usability of 53 Facial Action Units in VR, deriving a set of optimal (comfort, effort, performance) FAUs for interaction. We then use these facial inputs to drive and evaluate (N=10) two demonstrator apps: VR locomotion, and AR web browsing, showcasing how close facial interaction can get to existing baselines, and demonstrating that FAUs offer a viable, generalizable input modality for XR devices.2025GWGraham Wilson et al.University of Glasgow, School of Computing ScienceHand Gesture RecognitionFull-Body Interaction & Embodied InputEye Tracking & Gaze InteractionCHI
Everything to Gain: Combining Area Cursors with increased Control-Display Gain for Fast and Accurate Touchless InputTouchless displays often use mid-air gestures to control on-screen cursors for pointer interactions. Area cursors can simplify touchless cursor input by implicitly targeting nearby widgets without the cursor entering the target. However, for displays with dense target layouts, the cursor still has to arrive close to the widget, meaning the benefits of area cursors for time-to-target and effort are diminished. Through two experiments, we demonstrate for the first time that fine-tuning the mapping between hand and cursor movements (control-display gain -- CDG) can address the deficiencies of area cursors and improve the performance of touchless interaction. Across several display sizes and target densities (representative of myriad public displays used in retail, transport, museums, etc), our findings show that the forgiving nature of an area cursor compensates for the imprecision of a high CDG, helping users interact more effectively with smaller and more controlled hand/arm movements.2025KWKieran Waugh et al.University of Glasgow , School of Computing ScienceForce Feedback & Pseudo-Haptic WeightFull-Body Interaction & Embodied InputUbiquitous ComputingCHI
The Spin Doctor: Leveraging Insensitivity to Passive Rotational & Translational Gain For Unbounded Motion-Based VR ExperiencesResearch on rotational gain has been done largely under active self-motion, where users control their own movement. In multiple XR scenarios, the user is under passive self-motion: their body is moved by a training simulator, a motorised gaming chair, or a vehicle-based XR application. Users may be less sensitive to manipulation under passive motion - especially when engaged in a secondary task - meaning motion experiences could be expanded by high gains and even opposed virtual-physical motion. We identified both the perceptible and maximum comfortable thresholds of rotational gain when passively turned in a motorised chair, with and without a task, for the first time. We then applied those thresholds to an 'unbounded' in-car VR game where the user experiences an entirely different route to their physical movement. We provide the first guidelines for creating enhanced passive motion experiences and open the design space to new applications not restricted by physical movement2025GWGraham Wilson et al.University of Glasgow, School of Computing ScienceMotion Sickness & Passenger ExperienceImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
Exploring the Perspectives of Social VR-Aware Non-Parent Adults and Parents on Children’s Use of Social Virtual RealitySocial Virtual Reality (VR), where people meet in virtual spaces via 3D avatars, is used by children and adults alike. Children experience new forms of harassment in social VR where it is often inaccessible to parental oversight. To date, there is limited understanding of how parents and non-parent adults within the child social VR ecosystem perceive the appropriateness of social VR for different age groups and the measures in place to safeguard children. We present results of a mixed-methods questionnaire (N=149 adults, including 79 parents) focusing on encounters with children in social VR and perspectives towards children's use of social VR. We draw novel insights on the frequency of social VR use by children under 13 and current use of, and future aspirations for, child protection interventions. Compared to non-parent adults, parents familiar with social VR propose lower minimum ages and are more likely to allow social VR without supervision. Adult users experience immaturity from children in social VR, while children face abuse, encounter age-inappropriate behaviours and self-disclose to adults. We present directions to enhance the safety of social VR through pre-planned controls, real-time oversight, post-event insight and the need for evidence-based guidelines to support parents and platforms around age-appropriate interventions.2024CFCristina Fiani et al.Session 2a: Navigating Family Dynamics and Youth Health JourneysCSCW
From Slow-Mo to Ludicrous Speed: Comfortably Manipulating the Perception of Linear In-Car VR Motion Through Vehicular Translational Gain and AttenuationTo prevent motion sickness, Virtual Reality (VR) experiences for vehicle passengers typically present ``matched motion'': real vehicle movements are replicated 1:1 by movements in VR. To expand this design space, we provide foundations for in-car VR experiences that break free from this constraint by manipulating the passenger's visual perception of linear velocity through amplifying and reducing the virtual speed. In two on-the-road studies, we examined the application of Vehicular Translational Gain (1.5-9.5x) and Attenuation (0.66-0.14x) to real car speeds (~50km/h) across two VR tasks (reading and gaming), exploring journey perception, impact on motion sickness, travel experience and tasks. We found that vehicular gain/attenuation can be applied without significantly increasing motion sickness. Gain was more noticeable and affected perceived speed, distance, safety, relaxation and excitement, being well-suited to gaming, while attenuation was more suitable for productivity. Our work unlocks new ways that VR applications can safely enhance and alter the passenger experience through novel perceptual manipulations of vehicle velocity.2024KPKatharina Margareta Theresa Pöhlmann et al.KITE-Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University of GlasgowMotion Sickness & Passenger ExperienceSocial & Collaborative VRImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
"Pikachu would electrocute people who are misbehaving": Expert, Guardian and Child Perspectives on Automated Embodied Moderators for Safeguarding Children in Social Virtual RealityAutomated embodied moderation has the potential to create safer spaces for children in social VR, providing a protective figure that takes action to mitigate harmful interactions. However, little is known about how such moderation should be employed in practice. Through interviews with 16 experts in online child safety and psychology, and workshops with 8 guardians and 13 children, we contribute a comprehensive overview of how Automated Embodied Moderators (AEMs) can safeguard children in social VR. We explore perceived concerns, benefits and preferences across the stakeholder groups and gather first-of-their-kind recommendations and reflections around AEM design. The results stress the need to adapt AEMs to children, whether victims or harassers, based on age and development, emphasising empowerment, psychological impact and humans/guardians-in-the-loop. Our work provokes new participatory design-led directions to consider in the development of AEMs for children in social VR taking child, guardian, and expert insights into account.2024CFCristina Fiani et al.University of GlasgowSocial & Collaborative VROnline Harassment & Counter-ToolsOnline Identity & Self-PresentationCHI
What You Experience is What We Collect: User Experience Based Fine-Grained Permissions for Everyday Augmented RealityEveryday Augmented Reality (AR) headsets pose significant privacy risks, potentially allowing prolonged sensitive data collection of both users and bystanders (e.g. members of the public). While users control data access through permissions, current AR systems inherit smartphone permission prompts, which may be less appropriate for all-day AR. This constrains informed choices and risks over-privileged access to sensors. We propose (N=20) a novel AR permission control system that allows better-informed privacy decisions and evaluate it using five mock application contexts. Our system's novelty lies in enabling users to experience the varying impacts of permission levels on not only a) privacy, but also b) application functionality. This empowers users to better understand what data an application depends on and how its functionalities are impacted by limiting said data. Participants found that our method allows for making better informed privacy decisions, and deemed it more transparent and trustworthy than state-of-the-art AR and smartphone permission systems taken from Android and iOS. Our results offer insights into new and necessary AR permission systems, improving user understanding and control over data access.2024MASophia J. Abraham et al.University of GlasgowAR Navigation & Context AwarenessPrivacy by Design & User ControlIoT Device PrivacyCHI
Memory Manipulations in Extended RealityHuman memory has notable limitations (e.g., forgetting) which have necessitated a variety of memory aids (e.g., calendars). As we grow closer to mass adoption of everyday Extended Reality (XR), which is frequently leveraging perceptual limitations (e.g., redirected walking), it becomes pertinent to consider how XR could leverage memory limitations (forgetting, distorting, persistence) to induce memory manipulations. As memories highly impact our self-perception, social interactions, and behaviors, there is a pressing need to understand XR Memory Manipulations (XRMMs). We ran three speculative design workshops (n=12), with XR and memory researchers creating 48 XRMM scenarios. Through thematic analysis, we define XRMMs, present a framework of their core components and reveal three classes (at encoding, pre-retrieval, at retrieval). Each class differs in terms of technology (AR, VR) and impact on memory (influencing quality of memories, inducing forgetting, distorting memories). We raise ethical concerns and discuss opportunities of perceptual and memory manipulations in XR.2023EBElise Bonnail et al.Institut Polytechnique de ParisElectrical Muscle Stimulation (EMS)Immersion & Presence ResearchCHI
The Ergonomic Benefits of Passive Haptics and Perceptual Manipulation for Extended Reality Interactions in Constrained Passenger SpacesExtended Reality (XR) technology brings exciting possibilities for aeroplane passengers, allowing them to escape their limited cabin space. Using nearby physical surfaces enables a connection with the real world while improving the XR experience through touch. However, available surfaces may be located in awkward positions, reducing comfort and input performance and thus limiting their long-term use. We explore the usability of passive haptic surfaces in different orientations, assessing their effects on input performance, user experience and comfort. We then overcome ergonomic issues caused by the confined space by using perceptual manipulation techniques that remap the position and rotation of physical surfaces and user movements, assessing their effects on task workload, comfort and presence. Our results show that the challenges posed by constrained seating environments can be overcome by a combination of passive haptics and remapping the workspace with moderate translation and rotation manipulations. These manipulations allow for good input performance, low workload and comfortable interaction, opening up XR use while in transit.2023DMDaniel Medeiros et al.University of GlasgowMid-Air Haptics (Ultrasonic)Full-Body Interaction & Embodied InputImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
Re-Evaluating VR User Awareness Needs During Bystander InteractionsVirtual reality (VR) users are often around bystanders, i.e. people in the real world the VR user may want to interact with. To facilitate bystander-VR user interactions, technology-mediated awareness systems have been introduced to increase a user’s awareness of bystanders. However, while prior works have found effective means of facilitating bystander-VR user interactions, it is unclear when and why one awareness system should be used over another. We reviewed, and selected, a breadth of bystander awareness systems from the literature and investigated their usability, and how they could be holistically used together to support varying awareness needs across 14 bystander-VR user interactions. Our results demonstrate VR users do not manage bystander awareness based solely on the usability of awareness systems but rather on the demands of social context weighted against desired immersion in VR (something existing evaluations fail to capture) and show the need for socially intelligent bystander awareness systems.2023JOJoseph O'Hagan et al.University of GlasgowSocial & Collaborative VRImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
You spin me right 'round, baby, right 'round: Examining the Impact of Multi-Sensory Self-Motion Cues on Motion Sickness During a VR Reading TaskMotion sickness is a problem for many in everyday travel and will become more prevalent with the rise of automated vehicles. Virtual Reality (VR) headsets have shown significant promise in-transit, enabling passengers to engage in immersive entertainment and productivity experiences. In a controlled multi-session motion sickness study using an actuated rotating chair, we examine the potential of multi-sensory visual and auditory motion cues, presented during a VR reading task, for mitigating motion sickness. We found that visual cues are most efficient in reducing symptoms, with auditory cues showing some beneficial effects when combined with the visual. Motion sickness had negative effects on presence as well as task performance, and despite the cognitive demand and multi-sensory cues, motion sickness still reached problematic levels. Our work emphasises the need for effective mitigations and the design of stronger multi-sensory motion cues if VR is to fulfil its potential for passengers.2023KPKatharina Margareta Theresa Pöhlmann et al.University of GlasgowMotion Sickness & Passenger ExperienceImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
The Dark Side of Perceptual Manipulations in Virtual Reality"Virtual-Physical Perceptual Manipulations'' (VPPMs) such as redirected walking and haptics expand the user's capacity to interact with Virtual Reality (VR) beyond what would ordinarily physically be possible. VPPMs leverage knowledge of the limits of human perception to effect changes in the user's physical movements, becoming able to (perceptibly and imperceptibly) nudge their physical actions to enhance interactivity in VR. We explore the risks posed by the malicious use of VPPMs. First, we define, conceptualize and demonstrate the existence of VPPMs. Next, using speculative design workshops, we explore and characterize the threats/risks posed, proposing mitigations and preventative recommendations against the malicious use of VPPMs. Finally, we implement two sample applications to demonstrate how existing VPPMs could be trivially subverted to create the potential for physical harm. This paper aims to raise awareness that the current way we apply and publish VPPMs can lead to malicious exploits of our perceptual vulnerabilities.2022WTWen-Jie Tseng et al.Institut Polytechnique de ParisImmersion & Presence ResearchDance & Body Movement ComputingCHI
Acoustic Transparency and the Changing Soundscape of Auditory Mixed RealityAuditory headsets capable of actively or passively intermixing both real and virtual sounds are in-part acoustically transparent. This paper explores the consequences of acoustic transparency, both on the perception of virtual audio content, given the presence of a real-world auditory backdrop, and more broadly in facilitating a wearable, personal, private, always-available soundspace. We experimentally compare passive acoustically transparent, and active noise cancelling, orientation-tracked auditory headsets across a range of content types, both indoors and outdoors for validity. Our results show differences in terms of presence, realness and externalization for select content types. Via interviews and a survey, we discuss attitudes toward acoustic transparency (e.g. being perceived as safer), the potential shifts in audio usage that might be precipitated by adoption, and reflect on how such headsets and experiences fit within the area of Mixed Reality.2020MMMark McGill et al.University of GlasgowHaptic WearablesImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
PlaneVR: Social Acceptability of Virtual Reality for Aeroplane PassengersVirtual reality (VR) headsets allow wearers to escape their physical surroundings, immersing themselves in a virtual world. Although escape may not be realistic or acceptable in many everyday situations, air travel is one context where early adoption of VR could be very attractive. While travelling, passengers are seated in restricted spaces for long durations, reliant on limited seat-back displays or mobile devices. This paper explores the social acceptability and usability of VR for in-flight entertainment. In an initial survey, we captured respondents' attitudes towards the social acceptability of VR headsets during air travel. Based on the survey results, we developed a VR in-flight entertainment prototype and evaluated this in a focus group study. Our results discuss methods for improving the acceptability of VR in-flight, including using mixed reality to help users transition between virtual and physical environments and supporting interruption from other co-located people.2019JWJulie R. Williamson et al.University of GlasgowMotion Sickness & Passenger ExperienceImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI
Object Manipulation in Virtual Reality Under Increasing Levels of Translational GainRoom-scale Virtual Reality (VR) has become an affordable consumer reality, with applications ranging from entertainment to productivity. However, the limited physical space available for room-scale VR in the typical home or office environment poses a significant problem. To solve this, physical spaces can be extended by amplifying the mapping of physical to virtual movement (translational gain). Although amplified movement has been used since the earliest days of VR, little is known about how it influences reach-based interactions with virtual objects, now a standard feature of consumer VR. Consequently, this paper explores the picking and placing of virtual objects in VR for the first time, with translational gains of between 1x (a one-to-one mapping of a 3.5m*3.5m virtual space to the same sized physical space) and 3x (10.5m*10.5m virtual mapped to 3.5m*3.5m physical). Results show that reaching accuracy is maintained for up to 2x gain, however going beyond this diminishes accuracy and increases simulator sickness and perceived workload. We suggest gain levels of 1.5x to 1.75x can be utilized without compromising the usability of a VR task, significantly expanding the bounds of interactive room-scale VR.2018GWGraham Wilson et al.University of GlasgowFull-Body Interaction & Embodied InputImmersion & Presence ResearchCHI